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1687, l’année où les corsaires algériens firent leur apparition en mer du Nord
(2021-12-29) Van Krieken, Gerard
In June 1687, an Algerian sailor and four European prisoners met in the North Sea: a French clergyman, two German brothers and the captain of the Oranjeboom. The sailor, Mahamat, was on board one of the six privateers which, under the command of Admiral Canary, had sailed north through the Channel in search of booty. The pastor, Brassard, and the two Wolfgang brothers were passengers on a ship sailing from London to Rotterdam. The skipper of the Oranjeboom, Paulsen, came from Norway. At the end of that year, all five were in prison. The four Europeans in Algiers, the Algerian in France, in Toulon. Their captivity was not permanent. Some time later, they were all able to return home. This article deals with the incursion of Algerian privateers into the North Sea and the vicissitudes of these privateers and their victims.
A picture of Palestine through the books of Muslim travelers from the third to the seventh century
(مجلة الدراسات التاريخية -قسم التاريخ كلية العلوم الانسانية, 2020-06-30) Weshah, Ghassan
Palestine occupied an important place in the books of Muslim travelers, and they described the holy places in Palestine in detail, whether they were Islamic or Christian, As they described in Palestinian cities such as Gaza, Jerusalem, Nablus and Hebron, they presented a true picture of Palestine because their narration came from direct viewing.
Ahmed Sahnoun: One Of The Algerian Figures. "his Life ... His Effects And Examples Of His Literature
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات- مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الإنسانية جامعة الجزائر2 أبو القاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) طالبي امحمد; عبد الهادي محمد
The article deals with one of the pioneers of the Association of Algerian Muslim Scholars, the poet Sheikh "Sahnoun" (may God have mercy on him), through tracing his birth and his first upbringing in terms of education and education, and what are the things that affected his genius in the field of science, literature and advocacy. Not to mention his involvement in the Algerian people's resistance to French colonialism and his imprisonment and stalking. We recall the poet's adoption of many Arab and humanitarian issues, despite his preoccupation with the cause of his people and his suffering from hateful French colonialism. يتناول المقال أحد رواد جمعية العلماء المسلمين الجزائريين الشيخ الشاعر "أحمد سحنون" (رحمة الله)، من خلال تتبع مولده ونشأته الأولى من الناحية التربوية والتعليمية، وما الأشياء التي أثرت في نبوغه في مجال العلم والأدب والدعوة. ناهيك عن انخراطه في مقاومة الشعب الجزائري للاستعمار الفرنسي وتعرضه للسجن والمطاردة، ونذكر تبني الشاعر لعديد القضايا العربية والإنسانية على الرغم انشغاله بقضية شعبه ومعاناته من الاستعمار الفرنسي البغيض.T
Alger à L’époque Ottomane Xvie-xixe Siècles
(مجلة الدراسات التاريخية -قسم التاريخ-كلية العلوم الانسانية- جامعة الجزائر2, 2015-12-01) Kameche, Dalila
Alger à l’époque ottomane XVIe-XIXe siècles
Almanzor, The Leader Of Al-andalus And His Positive Legacy Almanzor, El Caudillo De Al- ándalus Y Su Legado Positivo
(des archives - Actualités des archives - Faculté des sciences humaines, Université Al-Jair, 2 Abou Al-Qasim Saad Allah, 2025-01-01) Tidmimt Yacine
Résumé Abu Amir “Al-Mansur Billah” Muhammad Ben Abd Allah, is an important military man from Al Ándalus state. Al Manzor in arabic language means the victorious warrior of Islam. He was very generous with the weak, we higlight that in his time Al-Andalus flourished in various áreas of life. We point out that agricultura was very prosperous during his caliphate, since he taught the Spanish his secrets. To win the admiration of his people, Al-Mansur reduced taxes on agricultural products. The leader made several legislative changes that allowed freedom of belief. Al-Mansur contributed with his army to resolve the internal conflicts that arose among the nobles, and he also founded the city of his dreams: Medina Zahara. Al-Mansur is known for being a protector and defender of the sciences and encouraged literatura, including other arts. Some consider him a unique knight, while others see him as the devil himself, a topic tha continues to be discussed after his passage through Spanish history. Resumen: Abu Amir "Al-Mansur Billah" Muhammad Ben Abd Allah, es un líder militar y hombre de estado de Al Ándalus. Al Manzor significa el victorioso en árabe, guerrero del islam. Fue muy generoso con los débiles, destacamos que en su época se floreció al-Ándalus en varios ámbitos de la vida. Señalamos que la agricultura fue muy próspera durante su califato, ya que enseñó a los españoles sus secretos. Para ganarse la admiración de su pueblo, Al-Mansur redujo los impuestos sobre los productos agrícolas. El caudillo realizo varios cambios legislativos que permitieron la libertad de creencia. Al-Mansur contribuyó con su ejército a resolver los conflictos internos que surgieron entre los nobles, así mismo fundó la ciudad de sus sueños: Medina Zahara. Al Manzor es conocido por ser protector y defensor de las ciencias y fomentó las letras, incluidas otras artes. Algunos lo consideran un caballero único, mientras que otros lo ven como el mismísimo diablo, tema que sigue en discusión tras su paso por la historia española.
An Introduction To The Origins Of Algeria's African Policy
(مجلة الدراسات التاريخية -قسم التاريخ-كلية العلوم الانسانية- جامعة الجزائر2, 1986-06-01) حمادي, خير الدين
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ORIGINS OF ALGERIA'S AFRICAN POLICY
Análisis De Los Perfiles Emprendedores En La Historieta Mafalda
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات-مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الانسانية جامعة الجزائر2 أبوالقاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) Chamma Yasmine
La historieta Mafalda ha sido objeto de estudio de muchos investigadores debido a su enorme valor que transciende el simple dibujo. La presente investigación pretende decodificar los arquetipos emprendedores encarnados por algunos personajes de la tira cómica y que coexisten en la actualidad. Mediante un análisis semiótico discursivo mostraremos cómo es posible que las emblemáticas viñetas de Quino proporcionen un mapa del espíritu emprendedor actual. Se identificarán las personalidades emprendedoras gracias al estudio de sus interacciones, discursos y algunos elementos simbólicos. A modo de conclusión, se expondrá la crítica y la visión del artista Quino detrás de estas caricaturas.
Architectural Archives: Documentary Diversity And Management Methods In The Context Of Digital Transformation
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات-مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الانسانية جامعة الجزائر2 أبو القاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) صوشي سليم; شيهاب أنفال
The architectural archives constitutes a wealth of documents and information that generally express the urban environment and its development throughout history. Collecting, preserving and sharing the archive related to architecture with the public not only contributes to enhancing knowledge about architecture as a cultural and civilizational product that attracts private and public interest, but all of these steps are considered a means to ensure the preservation, maintenance and protection of buildings and residential neighborhoods, and their reuse and exploitation in an appropriate manner. In this context, this study focuses on identifying the architectural archives, as an institutional memory and evidence of all documents and files for projects and designs on building engineering and the development of architecture, in addition to identifying its forms and methods of managing, archiving and preserving it. يشكل أرشيف العمارة ثروة من الوثائق والمعلومات التي تعبر بصفة عامة عن البيئة العمرانية وتطورها عبر التاريخ، فجمع الأرشيف المتعلق بالهندسة المعمارية وحفظه ومشاركته مع العامة لا يساهم فحسب في تعزيز المعرفة حول العمارة كنتاج ثقافي وحضاري يستقطب اهتماما خاصا وعاما، بل تعتبر هذه الخطوات كلها وسيلة لضمان المحافظة على الأبنية والأحياء السكنية وصونها وحمايتها، وإعادة استخدامها واستغلالها بالشكل المناسب، في هذا الإطار، تصب هذه الدراسة حول التعرف على أرشيف الهندسة المعمارية، كذاكرة مؤسساتية ودليل إثبات لكل الوثائق والملفات لمشاريع وتصاميم حول هندسة البناء وتطور العمارة، بالإضافة إلى التعرف على أشكاله وطرق تسيير وأرشفته وحفظه.
Birinci Dünya Savaşı’nda Fransa’nın Cezayir'de Hapsettiği Osmanlı Esirleri
(2023-12-31) Mahideb, Habiba
The Ottoman Empire's participation in World War I on the side of Germany led to conflicts and critical fightings in different regions of the world. The conflicts in which the Ottoman Empire entered on different fronts during the war took place between 1914 and 1918, caused serious human and material losses. The Allied Forces arrested and took prisoners Ottoman civilians and soldiers in various regions, including their colonies under the control of the Allied Powers. In this context, the issue of Ottoman prisoners in Algeria presents an interesting case. As England used India, Burma, Egypt, and other colonies to detain Ottoman prisoners; France also sent a large number of prisoners of war -Ottoman civilian and military citizens- to North Africa, especially to Algeria as one of the most important French colonies. French government used these prisoners for different purposes during the World War I as forced labor and logistical services to the French army. This article focuses on a not much known subject: Ottoman prisoners held by France in Algeria during the First World War. This paper is based on important Ottoman archival documents such as the correspondence made by the US Embassy in Paris to the Ottoman Empire on the subject of Ottoman prisoners in Algeria and North Africa and Turkish Red Crescent Society reports that shed light on their life conditions. This article aims to examine how and why Ottoman prisoners captured by France were sent to Algeria. It also explores the conditions they lived and the treatment they received in French prisons in Algeria. Additionally, the articles also sheds light on the nature of Ottoman-Algerian relations during that period.
Career Future Anxiety Among University Students Approaching Graduation A Field Study On A Sample Of Students At Khemis Miliana University
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات-مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الانسانية جامعة الجزائر2 أبوالقاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) Lahoual Faiza
this study aimed to examine the level of career future anxiety among university students approaching graduation. A descriptive research design was employed, and the Career future anxiety Scale developed by Mohammed Ben Younis (2017) was administered to a stratified random sample of 120 male and female students. The results indicated that university students nearing graduation experience a high level of career future anxiety. Additionally, the study found no significant differences in career future anxiety based on gender. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the factors contributing to career-related anxiety in order to support students in their transition from university to the professional workforce.
Cervantes And 21st-century Communication Forms Cervantes Y Las Formas De Comunicación Del Siglo Xxi
(des archives - Actualités des archives - Faculté des sciences humaines, Université Al-Jair, 2 Abou Al-Qasim Saad Allah, 2025-01-01) Belkacemi Chafik
Our work on Miguel de Cervantes is almost like an invitation we extend to this writer to come live with us in the 21st century. He was the one who knew how to open up a splendid world of interpretations and thoughts through his literature, which had an incessant impact on the arts and cultures of the world. By addressing universal themes such as the duality between pretense and real life, fortune, nobility, and social imperfections, his literature transcends its time and resonates with ours. In a world where issues of social justice, immigration, and cultural diversity are at the forefront, Cervantes could evoke social media and comment on digital platform podcasts, ensuring his voice is heard. His characters, like Cipion and Berganza, could be updated to speak to us about current battles, whether on television or digital network platforms. Este artículo sobre Miguel de Cervantes es un intento para indagar sobre lo atemporal que son las novelas de Miguel de Cervantes y también es un trabajo que busca explicar que la recepción de las obras de este autor es capaz de satisfacer el interés de los lectores del este siglo XXI. Cervantes supo abrir un esplendoroso mundo de interpretaciones y pensamientos mediante una obra literaria que tuvo y sigue teniendo una repercusión incesante en las artes y culturas del mundo. Al abordar temas universales como la dualidad entre el fingimiento y la vida real, la fortuna, la nobleza y las imperfecciones sociales, su literatura trasciende su época y resuena con la nuestra. En un mundo donde las cuestiones de justicia social, inmigración y diversidad cultural están en primer plano, Cervantes podría, si estuviera con nosotros conquistar las redes sociales y hacerse un lugar de honor en esta era digital. No es en vano que sus obras han sido adaptadas a la televisión y al cine y sus personajes no les falta nada para que sean héroes modernos de videojuegos o de una saga en Neflix, porque han sido diseñados de un modo que les ofrece la posibilidad de adaptarse a todas las épocas.
Cezayir ve Türkiye Atasözlerinde Dost
(2021-12-29) Ersöz, Serpil
Friendship is that relationship that connect individuals with each others; the friend enjoys trust and becomes the closest to us and keeps secrets, and on friendship an intimate relationship is formed between people without waiting for a special interest from that relationship. From this point of view, we can do a comparative study of the term and meaning of friendship and fellowship in all world cultures. In this study, we find many connotations and ideas that express the term friendship, despite the different status and moral dimension given to this term from one culture to another. Through this research, we seek to do a comparative study of the term friendship through the Turkish-Algerian proverbs by virtue of the fact that the proverbs are the real mirror that honestly reflects the popular culture of both countries. We aim through this study to clarify the similarities and differences in the meaning and place of the term friendship in both cultures. Perhaps this study will be a starting point for a comparative study of terms and topics of no less importance, such as: kinship, cleanliness, justice, patience, women, animals, work, etc... which can be topics for study in university theses.
Civilizational identity: from the Inception of Islam to the digital Age -Historical approach
(مجلة الدراسات التاريخية -قسم التاريخ كلية العلوم الانسانية, 2020-06-30) Benkheira, Nadjib
This paper explores three main issues in relation to cultural identity in the Arab Muslim world 1- Muslim identity since the inception of Islam to the establishment of a unique cultural identity 2- Identity and the threat of globalization 3- The issue of identity in the digital age يستكشف البحث ثلاث قضايا رئيسية تتعلق بالهوية الثقافية في العالم العربي الإسلامي: 1- الهوية الإسلامية منذ نشأة الإسلام كهوية ثقافية فريدة 2- الهوية وخطر العولمة 3- قضية الهوية في العصر الرقمي
Classical Education And Religious Teaching In Byzantium
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات-مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الانسانية جامعة الجزائر2 أبو القاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) كربال زكية
Abstract: Higher education marks a priority of the emperors who succeeded one another on the throne of the Byzantine Empire and this during most periods of its history. They knew from the beginning the importance of higher education in building a strong and lasting state. In this context, a large number of historians date the construction of the imperial university back to Constantine I the Great (306 – 337). From this highly superior institution was born a most remarkable Elite, whose members put their fine knowledge in the interest of the empire's organizations, both civil and military. It is of paramount importance to point out that higher education in Byzantium was purely secular based on classical disciplines. Concerning the teaching of herelogy, there was an institute in Constantinople independent of the imperial university. Finally, it is worth noting that this quality teaching produced eminent humanists who shone like stars in the sky of Byzantium for centuries, their brilliance also touched the sky of the West within the framework of the wave of forced immigration which brought many of this elite back to Italy during the 15th century. الملخص: شغل التعليم العالي واحدة من أولويات الأباطرة الذين تعاقبوا على العرش البيزنطي في أغلب فترات تاريخ هذه الإمبراطورية إنهم أدركوا منذ الوهلة الأولى أهمية الجانب التعليمي في بناء أركان هذا الكيان السياسي وذلك لضمان قوته وكذا استمراريته وفي هذا السياق ، يرجع عدد من المؤرخين بناء الجامعة الإمبراطورية الى عهد الامبراطور قسطنطين الأول العظيم Constantin I Le Grand (306ـ 337م)، في هذا السياق زود هذا الأخير مدينة القسطنطينية التي قام ببنائها بهذه المؤسسة التعليمية الرائدة إيمانا منه بأنها الوحيدة المخولة بتكوين إطارات عليا يحملون على عاتقهم مهمة تسير مختلف المؤسسات المدنية والعسكرية للإمبراطورية سواء في القسطنطينية أوفي الأقاليم المختلفة لها .
Commerce and warfare: a Brief Note on the Activities of Ottoman and Portuguese Pirates and Privateers in the Eastern Mediterranean (second half of the 15th century and early 16th century)
(2023-12-31) Couto, Dejanirah
This note focuses on the intertwined activities of Ottoman and Portuguese pirates and privateers in the Eastern Mediterranean in the second half of the 15th century and early 16th century. Their actions had impacts on the Portuguese-Mamluk conflict, which expanded in the Red Sea and the western Indian Ocean in the early 16th century. The growth of this Portuguese piracy was linked up with Portugal’s political and military ambitions in the central and eastern Mediterranean at the beginning of the 16th century. To achieve this strategy, they wielded enormous influence within the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. This article deals with two prominent Portuguese privateers and nobleman : André do Amaral, Chancellor of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem (in Rhodes), who defeatead the fleet of the Mamluk sultan Ḳānṣawḥ al-Ghawrī’s in the Gulf of Ayāz (1510). This defeat strongly contributed to increasing the dependence of the sultanate on the Ottomans, thus preparing the conquest of Egypt by Selim I in 1517. With regard to Diogo Fernandes de Almeida, it is worth clarifying that he was the brother of the first Vice-roy of the Estado da Índia (i.e. the Portuguese Empire in Asia).
Cultural Heritage Digitization And Valorization With 3d Imaging Technology
(المجلة المغاربية للمخطوطات-مخبر المخطوطات-كلية العلوم الانسانية جامعة الجائر2 أبو القاسم سعد الله, 2025-12-31) Khalfi Djamila
One key aspect of digitizing and valuing cultural heritage is two-dimensional imaging. This technique has facilitated the recording of archaeological sites and artworks, providing scholars and other interested parties with access to crucial data. The development of three-dimensional technologies has opened up new possibilities for heritage representation, including increased realism and accuracy. Significant advancements have been made in three-dimensional scanning technology, and laser scanners can now capture minor details of artifacts, enabling to creation of copies that are exact replicas of the original in terms of size, shape, color, and texture. In addition to documenting, this procedure makes it possible to virtually rebuild archaeological sites.
De emires en Túnez a refugiados en Nápoles y Sicilia. Las últimas generaciones de la dinastía Hafsí (1535-1642)
(2021-12-29) Varriale, Gennaro
This study pays special attention to the fate of the last members of the Hafsid dynasty, which ruled Tunisia from 1229 to the mid-16th century, at a time when it was part of the conflict between the Spanish Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire in the western Mediterranean Sea in general and the Maghreb region in particular. The collapse of the Hafsid dynasty and the end of its period of rule took place in the 16th century as a result of geopolitical changes around the perimeter. This research aims to analyse the consequences of Charles V's expedition to Tunisia in 1535 and the latter's accession to Ottoman rule after Sinan Pasha's expedition in 1574. We also seek to investigate the issue of the political asylum of the last Hafsid members in Naples, which led them to abandon Islam and become Christianised, citing as a clear testimony the tomb of Mulây Aḥmad al-thâlith al-Hafṣî found in one of the churches of Naples.
Diagnostic Study Of Teaching Innovation In The Teaching Of Spanish As A Foreign Language At The University Of Orán 2: Use Of Songs Estudio Diagnóstico De La Innovación Docente En La Enseñanza Del Español Como Lengua Extranjera En La Universidad De Orán 2: Uso De Canciones
(des archives - Actualités des archives - Faculté des sciences humaines, Université Al-Jair, 2 Abou Al-Qasim Saad Allah, 2025-01-01) Sekehal Hakim
This article focuses on teaching innovation in the field of Spanish as a foreign language (SFL) at the University of Orán 2, specifically on the use of songs as an educational tool. The problem addressed lies in the need to explore how incorporating songs can enrich the learning process and enhance student motivation and participation in the classroom. The study's objectives are to analyze the impact of using songs on the development of students' communicative competence and to evaluate their effectiveness compared to other teaching methods. The sample consists of 22 university students who participated in a questionnaire designed to gather relevant information about their experiences with the use of songs in learning Spanish. The analysis methodology employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, allowing for a comprehensive analysis of the results. Findings show that a high percentage of students (80%) frequently listen to songs in Spanish and that 93% believe these contribute to the development of their communicative competence. Additionally, students identify specific aspects, such as pronunciation and vocabulary, where songs help them learn. However, only 43% of teachers use songs in the classroom, indicating a significant opportunity to implement this innovative tool in SFL teaching. The results reflect a clear inclination among students towards the use of songs, highlighting their effectiveness in teaching grammatical structures and vocabulary, as well as their ability to make classes more dynamic and interesting. Overall, the study underscores the importance of integrating music into the classroom as a valuable strategy for enhancing the learning of Spanish as a foreign language. el presente artículo se centra en la innovación docente en la enseñanza del español como lengua extranjera (ELE) en la Universidad de Orán 2, específicamente en el uso de canciones como herramienta educativa. La problemática que se aborda radica en la necesidad de explorar cómo la incorporación de canciones puede enriquecer el proceso de aprendizaje y mejorar la motivación y participación de los estudiantes en el aula. Los objetivos del estudio son analizar el impacto del uso de canciones en el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa de los alumnos y evaluar su efectividad en comparación con otros métodos de enseñanza. La muestra está compuesta por 22 estudiantes de la universidad, quienes participaron en un cuestionario diseñado para recoger información relevante sobre sus experiencias con el uso de canciones en el aprendizaje del español. La metodología de análisis es de enfoque mixto, combinando métodos cuantitativos y cualitativos, lo que permite un análisis exhaustivo de los resultados. Los hallazgos muestran que un alto porcentaje de estudiantes (80%) escucha canciones en español con frecuencia y que el 93% considera que estas contribuyen al desarrollo de su competencia comunicativa. Además, los estudiantes identifican aspectos específicos, como la pronunciación y el léxico, en los que las canciones les ayudan a aprender. Sin embargo, solo el 43% de los profesores utiliza canciones en el aula, lo que indica una oportunidad significativa para implementar esta herramienta innovadora en la enseñanza de ELE. Los resultados reflejan una clara inclinación de los estudiantes hacia la utilización de canciones, destacando su efectividad en la enseñanza de estructuras gramaticales y vocabulario, así como su capacidad para hacer las clases más dinámicas e interesantes. En conjunto, el estudio subraya la importancia de integrar la música en el aula como una estrategia valiosa para mejorar el aprendizaje del español como lengua extranjera.
Donanma Mecmuası’na Göre Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun 19. ve 20. Yüzyıllarda Mağrip Siyaseti
(2021-12-29) Nemlioğlu Koca, Yasemin
Algeria, the largest country in Africa, is the gateway to Central Africa by its 1200 km coast in the Mediterranean Sea. Due to its geographical location, Maghreb Region has played an important role in the commercial and political domination of the Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean in the past. On the other hand, Algeria was of great importance in the success of Ottoman politics in the Western Mediterranean and North Africa. Despite the loss of Maghreb in the 19th-20th centuries, Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli played an important role in the Mediterranean and jihad policies of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman proclamation of the Great Jihad (Cihad-ı Ekber) in World War I in 1914 sets an example of the relation between religion and politics. The Ottoman leaders and its allied Germany act in union in the aim of proclaiming this jihad to all Muslim living outside Anatolia. During the war in Europe and the entry of the Ottoman Empire into the war, the Ottoman press adopted an Islamic rhetoric and explained to public the necessity of jihad to save the Islam and Muslims around the World. Therefore, the Ottoman press was used in order to prepare the psychology of the masses for the war bypublications. The one of these publications, the “Donanma Mecmuası (Navy Journal)” was issued by the Navy Association in 1910-1919. In this journal, there were articles about the maritime, naval and foreign policy of the Ottoman Empire, whose authors were navy officers, bureaucrats and intellectuals. In this study, an attempt has been made to explain examples of the Donanma Mecmuası reflecting the view of the Ottoman Navy towards the Maghreb politics at the beginning of the 20thcentury.
El inicio del reinado de Felipe III, el final de la política defensiva en el Mediterráneo contra el Imperio Otomano
(2023-06-30) Bunes Ibarra, Miguel Ángel
The beginning of the reign of Felipe III has the essential characteristics of starting a very active policy in the Mediterranean. The main concern was to destroy the city of Algiers, which is why a conquest campaign was organized in 1601. The failure of the Genoa army in the Ottoman city meant that a new way of trying to limit the actions of the corsairs by sea and the janissaries by land had to be implemented. To carry out this policy the monarchy tried to find an ally in the territory to distract the Algerians and prevent their maritime and land actions. For this they sought an ally in the territory, initiating an active military and diplomatic policy with Kabylia and its rulers.